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6. Returns - still worried that even after all of the above your Risk Compensation wont be what you want? Check out the returns policy. There is so much competition now that someone, somewhere is bound to offer the terms that you are comfortable with.
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8. Security - check for the yellow padlock on the Risk Compensation site before you buy, and the s after http:/ /i.e. https:// = a secure site
9. Contact - got a question about Risk Compensation, or want to leave a comment then check out the sites contact page. Reputable companies have them and respond.
10. Payment - ready to pay for your Risk Compensation, then use your credit card or PayPal! Be aware of companies that don't accept them, there may be genuine reasons but given the huge amount of choice you have when buying online there is no reason at all not to buy via credit card or PayPal.
In
ethology,
risk compensation is an effect whereby individual
animals may tend to adjust their
behaviour in response to perceived changes in risk. It is seen as self-evident that individuals will tend to behave in a more cautious manner if their perception of risk or danger increases. Another way of stating this is that individuals will behave less cautiously in situations where they feel "safer" or more protected.
There is evidence that such an effect is seen in humans, associated with the use of safety features such as
Automobile seat belts and bicycle helmets. The evidence is particularly compelling for the case of antilock braking systems. The existence of this balancing behaviour does not mean an intervention does not work; the effect could be less than, equal to, or even more than the true efficacy of the intervention, depending on how well the perceived efficacy matches actual efficacy - and this will differ from individual to individual. It is likely to be least when an intervention is imperceptible and greatest when an intervention is intrusive or conspicuous.
The theory grew largely out of investigations of
road safety interventions. It was noted that most interventions had failed to achieve the forecast savings in lives and injuries. Theorists speculated that while the studies demonstrated that the probability of injury given a crash had reduced, the fact that the overall probability of injury was unchanged indicated that there must have been some change in the probability of crashing.
This controversial view was at first strongly resisted but detailed investigation, particularly of the case of compulsory seat belts, caused the theory to become more widely accepted, although it is still resisted by many who support an interventionist approach.
The logical conclusion of this theory has been reached with the
shared space initiatives piloted first in Denmark and the Netherlands, and now being copied elsewhere in Europe and North America. Significant safety benefits have been claimed from the complete removal of street furniture and signage from urban environments, requiring all users to take more care.
Related research
Anti-lock brakes
There are at least three studies which show that drivers' response to Anti-lock braking system is to drive faster, follow closer and brake later, accounting for the failure of ABS to result in any measurable improvement in road safety. The following references describe studies in Canada, Denmark and
Germany.
Grant and Smiley, "Driver response to antilock brakes: a demonstration on behavioural adaptation" from Proceedings, Canadian Multidisciplinary Road Safety Conference VIII, June 14-16, Saskatchewan 1993.
Sagberg, Fosser, and Saetermo, "An investigation of behavioural adaptation to airbags and antilock brakes among taxi drivers" Accident Analysis and Prevention #29 pp 293-302 1997.
Aschenbrenner and Biehl, "Improved safety through improved technical measures? empirical studies regarding risk compensation processes in relation to anti-lock braking systems". In Trimpop and Wilde, Challenges to Accident Prevention: The issue of risk compensation behaviour (Groningen, NL, Styx Publications, 1994).
Cycle helmets
A study published in the March 2007 issue of
Accident Analysis & Prevention showed that drivers drove an average of 3.35 inches closer, and came within 1 meter 23% more often, when a cyclist was wearing a helmet. http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa029&articleID=778EF0AB-E7F2-99DF-3594A60E4D9A76B2
Seat belts
In 1981
John Adams (geographer) published a paper,
The efficacy of seatbelt legislation: A comparative study of road accident fatality statistics from 18 countries, Dept of Geography University College, London 1981 - published in 1982 by the Society of Automotive Engineers. This showed that in the countries studied, which included states with and without seat belt laws, there was no correlation between the passing of
seat belt legislation and reductions in injuries or fatalities.
This paper was published at a time when Britain was considering a seat belt law, so the Department for Transport commissioned a report into the issue. In the event the report's author, Isles, agreed with Adams' conclusions. The Isles Report was never published officially but a copy was leaked to the Press some years later. Seat belt savings: implications of European statistics. Isles JE, STG Division, Department of Transport, UK. Dated but not published April 1981. "The Isles Report" The law was duly passed and subsequent investigation showed some reduction in fatalities, the cause of which could not be conclusively stated, due to the simultaneous introduction of evidential
breath testing).Adams,
RiskOther research has taken groups of drivers, including those who did and did not habitually wear seat-belts, and measured the effect on driving style in the habitually unbelted. The drivers were found to drive faster and less carefully when belted. Janssen, W. Seat belt wearing and driving behaviour: An instrumented-vehicle study. Accident Analysis and Prevention.1994 Apr; Vol 26(2): 249-2
Skydiving
Booth's rule #2, coined by skydiving pioneer
Bill Booth, states that "The safer skydiving gear becomes, the more chances skydivers will take, in order to keep the fatality rate constant". Even though skydiving equipment has made huge leaps forward in terms of reliability in the past two decades, and safety devices such as
Automatic activation device have been introduced, the fatality rate has stayed roughly constant since the early 1980s. This can largely be attributed to an increase in the popularity of high performance canopies, which fly much faster than traditional parachutes. High speed manoeuvres close to the ground have increased the number of landing fatalities in recent years, even though these jumpers have perfectly functioning parachutes over their heads.
Speed limits
A 1994 study by Jeremy Jackson and Roger Blackman{{cite paper|title=A driving-simulator test of Wilde's risk homeostasis theory|author=Jackson JSH, Blackman R|date=1994|publisher=Journal of Applied Psychology--> showed that although increased speed limits and reduced speeding fines significantly increased driving speed, there was no effect on accident frequency. It also showed that increased accident cost caused large and significant reductions in accident frequency but no change in speed choice. The abstract states that the results suggest that regulation of specific risky behaviors such as speed choice may have little influence on accident rates.
Risk homeostasis
An associated theory is known as
risk homeostasis. This extends risk compensation theory somewhat, although in practice the two terms are often used interchangeably.
Professor Gerald J. S. Wilde illustrates this by reference to the Swedish experience when they changed from right- to left-hand drive in 1967. This was followed by a marked reduction in the traffic fatality rate, but the trend returned to its previous values after about 18 months. Drivers had responded to increased perceived danger by taking more care; as they became accustomed to the new regime, the additional care evaporated.
Risk compensation is now widely accepted, but risk homeostasis, which goes much further, has a much smaller following.
See also
Notes
References
| last = Adams
| first = John
| year = 1995
| title = Risk
| publisher = Routledge
| id = ISBN 1-85728-068-7
-->
| last = Wilde
| first = Gerald J.S.
| year = 1994
| title = Target Risk
| url = http://psyc.queensu.ca/target/
| accessdate = 2006-04-26
| publisher = PDE Publications
| id = ISBN 0-9699124-0-4
-->
In
ethology,
risk compensation is an effect whereby individual
animals may tend to adjust their behaviour in response to perceived changes in risk. It is seen as self-evident that individuals will tend to behave in a more cautious manner if their perception of risk or danger increases. Another way of stating this is that individuals will behave less cautiously in situations where they feel "safer" or more protected.
There is evidence that such an effect is seen in humans, associated with the use of safety features such as
Automobile seat belts and bicycle helmets. The evidence is particularly compelling for the case of antilock braking systems. The existence of this balancing behaviour does not mean an intervention does not work; the effect could be less than, equal to, or even more than the true efficacy of the intervention, depending on how well the perceived efficacy matches actual efficacy - and this will differ from individual to individual. It is likely to be least when an intervention is imperceptible and greatest when an intervention is intrusive or conspicuous.
The theory grew largely out of investigations of
road safety interventions. It was noted that most interventions had failed to achieve the forecast savings in lives and injuries. Theorists speculated that while the studies demonstrated that the probability of injury given a crash had reduced, the fact that the overall probability of injury was unchanged indicated that there must have been some change in the probability of crashing.
This controversial view was at first strongly resisted but detailed investigation, particularly of the case of compulsory seat belts, caused the theory to become more widely accepted, although it is still resisted by many who support an interventionist approach.
The logical conclusion of this theory has been reached with the
shared space initiatives piloted first in Denmark and the Netherlands, and now being copied elsewhere in Europe and North America. Significant safety benefits have been claimed from the complete removal of street furniture and signage from urban environments, requiring all users to take more care.
Related research
Anti-lock brakes
There are at least three studies which show that drivers' response to Anti-lock braking system is to drive faster, follow closer and brake later, accounting for the failure of ABS to result in any measurable improvement in road safety. The following references describe studies in
Canada,
Denmark and
Germany.
Grant and Smiley, "Driver response to antilock brakes: a demonstration on behavioural adaptation" from Proceedings, Canadian Multidisciplinary Road Safety Conference VIII, June 14-16, Saskatchewan 1993.
Sagberg, Fosser, and Saetermo, "An investigation of behavioural adaptation to airbags and antilock brakes among taxi drivers" Accident Analysis and Prevention #29 pp 293-302 1997.
Aschenbrenner and Biehl, "Improved safety through improved technical measures? empirical studies regarding risk compensation processes in relation to anti-lock braking systems". In Trimpop and Wilde, Challenges to Accident Prevention: The issue of risk compensation behaviour (Groningen, NL, Styx Publications, 1994).
Cycle helmets
A study published in the March 2007 issue of
Accident Analysis & Prevention showed that drivers drove an average of 3.35 inches closer, and came within 1 meter 23% more often, when a cyclist was wearing a helmet. http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa029&articleID=778EF0AB-E7F2-99DF-3594A60E4D9A76B2
Seat belts
In
1981 John Adams (geographer) published a paper,
The efficacy of seatbelt legislation: A comparative study of road accident fatality statistics from 18 countries, Dept of Geography University College, London 1981 - published in 1982 by the
Society of Automotive Engineers. This showed that in the countries studied, which included states with and without seat belt laws, there was no correlation between the passing of seat belt legislation and reductions in injuries or fatalities.
This paper was published at a time when Britain was considering a seat belt law, so the Department for Transport commissioned a report into the issue. In the event the report's author, Isles, agreed with Adams' conclusions. The Isles Report was never published officially but a copy was leaked to the Press some years later. Seat belt savings: implications of European statistics. Isles JE, STG Division, Department of Transport, UK. Dated but not published April 1981. "The Isles Report" The law was duly passed and subsequent investigation showed some reduction in fatalities, the cause of which could not be conclusively stated, due to the simultaneous introduction of evidential
breath testing).Adams,
RiskOther research has taken groups of drivers, including those who did and did not habitually wear seat-belts, and measured the effect on driving style in the habitually unbelted. The drivers were found to drive faster and less carefully when belted. Janssen, W. Seat belt wearing and driving behaviour: An instrumented-vehicle study. Accident Analysis and Prevention.1994 Apr; Vol 26(2): 249-2
Skydiving
Booth's rule #2, coined by skydiving pioneer Bill Booth, states that "The safer skydiving gear becomes, the more chances skydivers will take, in order to keep the fatality rate constant". Even though skydiving equipment has made huge leaps forward in terms of reliability in the past two decades, and safety devices such as
Automatic activation device have been introduced, the fatality rate has stayed roughly constant since the early 1980s. This can largely be attributed to an increase in the popularity of high performance canopies, which fly much faster than traditional parachutes. High speed manoeuvres close to the ground have increased the number of landing fatalities in recent years, even though these jumpers have perfectly functioning parachutes over their heads.
Speed limits
A 1994 study by Jeremy Jackson and Roger Blackman{{cite paper|title=A driving-simulator test of Wilde's risk homeostasis theory|author=Jackson JSH, Blackman R|date=1994|publisher=Journal of Applied Psychology--> showed that although increased speed limits and reduced speeding fines significantly increased driving speed, there was no effect on accident frequency. It also showed that increased accident cost caused large and significant reductions in accident frequency but no change in speed choice. The abstract states that the results suggest that regulation of specific risky behaviors such as speed choice may have little influence on accident rates.
Risk homeostasis
An associated theory is known as
risk homeostasis. This extends risk compensation theory somewhat, although in practice the two terms are often used interchangeably.
Professor Gerald J. S. Wilde illustrates this by reference to the Swedish experience when they changed from right- to left-hand drive in 1967. This was followed by a marked reduction in the traffic fatality rate, but the trend returned to its previous values after about 18 months. Drivers had responded to increased perceived danger by taking more care; as they became accustomed to the new regime, the additional care evaporated.
Risk compensation is now widely accepted, but risk homeostasis, which goes much further, has a much smaller following.
See also
Notes
References
| last = Adams
| first = John
| year = 1995
| title = Risk
| publisher = Routledge
| id = ISBN 1-85728-068-7
-->
| last = Wilde
| first = Gerald J.S.
| year = 1994
| title = Target Risk
| url = http://psyc.queensu.ca/target/
| accessdate = 2006-04-26
| publisher = PDE Publications
| id = ISBN 0-9699124-0-4
-->
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In ethology, risk compensation is an effect whereby individual animals may tend to adjust their behaviour in response to perceived changes in risk.
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